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Training Programs

 The Effects of training

To effectively apply systematic increases in your program it is important to look at the effects of training. This should help you understand why and how to apply increases in your workout loads. The effects of training can fall into one of three categories:

1) Immediate:
this describes effects immediately following the workout including fatigue and the beginning of the recovery process (see Figure 1). 

Figure 1: Effects of a single workout with optimum load

Evaluation of immediate effects of training is crucial in selecting the right intensity, volume, rest intervals and the method used. Information on the character and extent of the immediate effect helps with the overall structure of training cycles and the order of different individual exercises in the training session. For example, slight changes in the intensity of exercises or improperly chosen rest periods in interval workouts will overload a different metabolism than planned. As well, scheduling future exercises without paying attention to the effects of previous ones, may create an unplanned reaction of the body. For instance, the effects of anaerobic exercises with lactate acid accumulation will be intensified if preceded by speed exercises, but if they follow long distance aerobic work, the effects will be decreased.

2) Delayed:
this describes effects on the processes of restoration, recovery and supercompensation (improvement) of work capacity after a single training session (see Figure 1). The delayed effects are expressed by synthesis of protein, restoration of fuel storages and increases in hormonal and enzymes activities. Related to recovery and its after effects on the ability to perform, full restoration of functions overloaded with a workout, if not followed by the next load, go through recovery and full recovery of stressed functions. Supercompensation improvement above the level prior to the load will occur. However, this state is not permanent and after a short time benefits disappear.

3) Cumulative:
this describes effects of training which are the result of added immediate and delayed after-affects of many individual training sessions. To reach a cumulative effect, progressive increases in training load must be executed in the presence of delayed effects of the previous session. If there is too much rest between workouts the effects of the previous training session are lost. In such a situation the best possible result would be maintenance. You must start the next workout during recovery from previous one, before full recovery occurs and supercompensation is reached. Waiting for complete delayed effect to take place is only beneficial on occasion and in the peaking cycle, but is not desired in the gradual progressive training process. The controlling elements here are frequency and the rest time between training sessions. After you execute several training sessions which start in presence of the effects from previous ones, you can add a rest session to allow the body to rebuilt and improve work capacity (Figure2). 

Figure 2: Cumulative Effect of multiple training sessions

This process is similar to metal working. When you are trying to mold the metal you keep it hot, cooling it only briefly as you mold the shape. The same holds true for the development of the athlete. They should only be rested enough to perform the proper functions needed to improve the area you are working on. In metal working if you hit the metal when it is too hot it may break. The same thing happens to the athlete. If you give them too much or too intensive a workload, without allowing them to rest, they will get sick, injured or overtrained. Once the metal is formed into its final design you cool it completely and it become a new shape. In the athlete, this is the process of peaking for the main race. 

In today's world of elite level and professional sports, serious athletes can not afford a training program where every workout starts after full rest from the previous workout. The complexity of this principle and its execution requires very careful and deliberate planning with periodical testing and observation of the effects of each individual workout, small and large training cycles and final results of the season. With the available information , there is no doubt that, to improve performance, the athlete must follow a training process of systematically and gradually raised loads which periodically creates a state of overload. Overload is a prerequisite to progress and defines progressive increase of training needed to reach peak performance.

 Phases of Adaptation

To understand the need for a systematic, organized training program one must know how long term adaptation, is formed in our body. In the development of functional adaptation, which is the adaptation of physiological, psychological and motor requirements for a specific sport, we can clearly see three positive phases.

The first phase is that of immediate adaptation related to full mobilization of all functional reserves of the body in response to given workout load. This is basically the effect of a single workout or race in which you use whatever functions you have to perform. Although psychologically gratifying at the time, this is a short term effect of training which does not have any significant lasting effects on improvement. Athletes in this phase should always be considered "recreational" because their training pattern, which is sporadic at best, will never bring long lasting improvement in overall results. Even tough some changes are observed but none of them are significant structural or functional changes of the body to secure new level of athletic shape. Sometimes changes may occur but due to lack of progressive and timely application of the next loads temporary gains disappear.

In the second phase of basic adaptation, as a result of applied planned increases in training loads, the body responds with structural and functional changes in the body and groups of tissues directly related to the specific workloads. In other words, with systematic properly planned workouts, an athlete's body begins to develop and change. By the end of this phase we see hypertrophy of the organs and an increase in efficiency of the specific work. The athlete begins to take shape through changes in the body specific to their sport e.g. cyclist will see enlargement of heart muscle, legs muscles developed etc. Psychologically, they are gaining confidence through noticeable changes in measurable tasks. They are beginning to accomplish goals and solidify mental training techniques which help them perform up to their potential. This is perhaps the most important time for an athlete and coach because much of the work must be done without expectation of immediate results. Training is still dominated by development of general and basic characteristics with growing gradually specialized amount of work. In this phase, the athlete often has mixed results. They may have a spectacular race or game followed by a dismal showing, but are unlikely to be able to consistently repeat high level performances over a long period of time. Athletes who are unguided often get discouraged and misinterpret these results as meaning that they are making mistakes in their training. A good coach can encourage the athlete through these times by focusing on specific tasks and concentrating on daily development. It is critical that the athlete has complete faith in the coach and that both parties have faith in the path of development they have chosen. Unfortunately, some talented athletes never move beyond this phase, because of improper training, psychological or physical limitations or all of the above.

In the final phase of achieving stable long term adaptation (the elite level athlete), the body is exposed to a well organized progressive and specialized training process which secures long term changes. In this phase, the athlete's body moves from structural and functional changes specific to applied workloads, to a new level of whole body functioning. This whole body functioning creates reserves which secure a new "operating system" and the stabilization of energy and motor structures. In this phase, an athlete is able to perform anytime within couple percentage points of their maximum capacity. Most athletes work for years or even decades to get to this phase, often facing countless disappointments along the way, but sometimes with relative ease. In this phase, the coach is more of a consultant, occasionally reminding the athlete of details or helping with tests or technique. The athlete is completely developed and basically enjoying the fruits of their labor. But this phase does not last forever. Even the best athletes are not unbeatable, and there are continually new athletes moving into this phase. Just as peaking in the annual cycle is limited, so physiological and psychological characteristics cannot be rebuilt indefinitely. In other words, the life of the athlete has limits. In fact, the amount of time an athlete spends at the top is usually significantly less than the amount of time it took them to get there.

There is also fourth phase of adaptation which is undesirable. This phase is a result of irrational training programs with too much work volume, insufficient recovery times, excessively long breaks between training cycles, and other improper applications of training principles. It is sometimes accompanied by bad nutrition or other abuses to the body although these are not necessary to experience negative results. The effects include weakening of the components of the functional system and long term structural damages. This usually leads to injury, illness and eventually even psychological breakdown in the form of depression, loss of confidence or other disorders. Athletes who end up in this phase are typically thought of as "overtrained" or "burned out", although the complexity of the phase encompasses a much broader range of problems. In many cases, the problems start very early in the development of the athlete when, as I mentioned earlier, the athlete is subjected to too much or too intensive training. The consequences of these actions often do not manifest themselves in physical conditions until much later in life. I guess you could compare this to other abuses of the body such as smoking and lung disease. Usually by the time the athlete is in this phase there is very little that can be done to reverse the process. I often see older endurance athletes who have been working hard for years, hoping that this will be the year they break through. They struggle through injuries and illnesses, determined that this will be the year they break through. It is a terribly frustrating dilemma for everyone involved and it underscores the importance of following the proper principle of development. There is no reason that any athlete should have to face this situation.

Achieving this level of adaptation does not guarantee high level results but bring the but brings the basic shape of the athlete to the level from which properly executed physical and mental peaking allow them to reach top level needed to win. In some cases level of this adaptation due to insufficient development of the basic structural and functional changes like e.g. aerobic capacity ,strength, speed and etc. is not high enough to even with good peaking reach the level of performance to be contender for the top place. It is also may reflect genetically limitations. In this situation athletes may produce solid results time after time enough to be in elite competition but not enough to challenge the top players. Some coaches, especially in smaller countries where pool of the athletes is small sometimes attempt rebuilding long term adaptation to higher level. Most of the time extreme overloads of specialized or even general abilities. The most of ten is done with older athletes who have nothing too loose by experimenting. For example older athlete who reached plateau in endurance sports by developing general strength to higher level influence possibility to improve speed. In the same time extreme overload of general aerobic endurance can change foundation profile of specialized endurance. With new basic structural and functional changes of speed and aerobic capacity specialized training may rebuild long term adaptation to higher level with ability to carry higher average speed over the distance bring athlete to contender's level of race speed giving him a shot at the top. 

 The Annual Program

The benefits of long term programming are unquestionable because all serious athletes strive to continue to improve year after year. However, short term programming or annual periodization, because of its tremendous impact on immediate results, is usually the tool of choice for coaches and athletes. Because of the tremendous pressure on immediate results coaches and athletes are often expected to produce instant results. Some coaches are masters at squeezing everything out of an athlete in a matter of a few months. In some cases this is justified, but again, usually it ends in disaster, especially for the athlete who does not understand the consequences. Even worse are parents and coaches who, out of ignorance, demand immediate results and also expect long term progress. As the saying goes, you can't have it all.

For the best overall development of the athlete, annual periodization should be a reflection of long term periodization. It should divide the program into smaller cycles, allowing better control over the training process which aims at peak performance for the main competition of the year. The length and specific content of each cycle depends on the stage of long term development. Cycles emphasize, respective to the long term goal, the amount of the total volume and intensity, as well as ratio between general and specialized work volume planned for that year. Traditionally, annual periodization consists of three major phases: preparatory - with general and pre-season subphases, competitive and transition. 

Figure 3: Example of yearly training periodization.

But in some newer models, dividing the year into four major phases explain more closely what happens in the training process: accumulation, intensification, transformation and transition. Figure 1 show the interaction of different factor involved in the annual training process.

1) Accumulation:
is devoted to the development or rebuilding (for elite level athletes) of general abilities. In the case of younger or beginner athletes who are at the basic training stage, multilateral development should dominate this phase. Elite athletes will work on improving and rebuilding general aspects of abilities involved in the final performance. This is good time to improve or make fundamental changes in technique or performance strategy. It should be the longest phase of annual periodization and, depending on the stage of development and sports complexity, can take 40-60% of year cycle. Accumulation is the foundation or "base" of the annual pyramid where the top is final performance. The quality of the upcoming competitive season and peaking is directly related to this period so the choices an athlete or coach makes related to training here are crucial and can not be random. The biggest progress is made in the accumulation phase. That's why it is imperative that precise goals are established so the effectiveness of program can be measured by periodical tests. Periodical tests not only motivate athletes to build a solid base for intensification and transformation, but can also provide important information on individual relationships of general development of different characteristics and final performance.

2) Intensification:
or pre-season subphase of the preparatory period is the shortest phase of the annual cycle, aiming to lay foundation for the maximum and above maximum level loads used in the next phase of training, transformation. This phase is a progressive step from accumulation level loads to more specific and higher intensity(submaximal) loads. Exercises used here are sport specific. This phase takes 20-25% of the annual periodization. In some sports, this phase cuts into the competitive season. In these cases, competitions are programmed into training and performed with a strategy reflecting training tasks for this period.

3) Transformation:
(Competitive period). The most important task of training during the racing season is to transform athletic shape formed during the preparation stage into the best possible performance in a specific competition. Training during the transformation has maximum and above maximum intensity loads separated with low intensity ones to secure recovery, and a few workouts aimed at maintaining basic development. All work should directly simulate racing conditions or try to model desired performance. An important factor which will determine the success of a season is motivation and the ability to mobilize the body to perform at maximal effort. Focus and will power training is the final key to a great performance. As in formula one car racing where even the best prepared car with a mediocre driver will not perform its best, maximum performance in sport is possible only when an athlete is able to dig into the body's reserves, which are difficult or impossible to touch during the training process. This is why, after the intensification phase, competitions themselves are the best tool for the transformation of the newly developed level of athletic shape into performance. The number of races or maximum loads in this period depends on the athlete's level of development and individual response. Most competitions in the transformation phase are used for training. The number of primary competitions cannot be too big and is usually limited to between 2 to 5, depending on the sport and the level of the athlete. The primary competition will require a full taper(reduction of training load by up to 60%) during the last 2-4 weeks of training. Relative to the entire training cycle, direct preparation for competition is short, but its importance cannot be overstressed because its effectiveness determines the outcome of the transformation of long hours of hard work into results.

Peaking:

4) Transition:
(post season period) represents the passing stage to the next annual cycle of training. Its main target is to remove the physical and mental fatigue accumulated during the competitive phase and regenerate stores for the accumulation phase. During this time of approximately 2-3 weeks of active rest, a change of environment and fun recreational type activities are recommended.

 Examples

1) 800m:
Training schedule for 800m (youth - 16/17 years - part 1)
Training schedule for 800m (youth - 16/17 years - part 2).
This schedule is meant for a young 800m runner (16-18 years) with a lot of strength and speed. Training is focused on developing the anaerobic potential, and less on the aerobic development. This program will bring a young runner in shape for the 400m and 800m, not for the 1500m. The program starts in January from a good basic aerobic and anaerobic capacity.

It's a 9 month running program. Unless stated otherwise Intervals are usually done with a 3 min walking recovery. Speed at which the Intervals are run generally increase when the competitive season starts. No target times are mentioned in order not to put too much stress on the young athletes. Personally I don't think it's the best program in the world, but it does build up speed. It's one of the programs I personally used when I was 16 and 17 years, and I managed to run a 52" (on 400m) and a 1'59" (on 800m) in the summer. The second part of the program covers the following year, when I ran a 1'57"19 in May, before getting seriously injured in the summer. As always be careful if you want to use this program as an example; it's not suited for all types of runners, and it focuses a lot on stamina! 
Training schedule by Wim M. and performed by Luc B.

2) 800m/1500m:
Training schedule for 1500m (aimed at sub 4'00).
This schedule is meant for a 800m/1500m runner with strength and anaerobic potential. It's a schedule for building up a basic form at the beginning of the season. Fine-tuning is not included. It's a 3 month schedule, beginning with a focus on aerobic capacity, soon switching to anaerobic workouts, with an average of 6 to 7 workouts per week. 
Training schedule by Hubert A. and performed by Luc B.

3) 1500m:
Training schedule for 1500m/3000m (aimed at sub 3'55 / sub 8'30).
This schedule is meant for the typical 1500m runner with a large aerobic potential. It's a 5 weeks schedule fit for the last 5 weeks prior to summer competition, with an average of 7 workouts per week. Watch out! It's a very tough schedule and is definitely not fit for everybody. 
Training schedule by Alex P. and performed by Moussa B. (who ran 3'51 one week after finishing this schedule). 

Training:

contains: 

ABSTRACTS, NEWS & ARTICLES:

TRAINING PRINCIPLES:

- I. Individual Differences
- II. Overload
- III. Progression
- IV. Adaptation
- V. Use / Disuse
- VI. Specificity

BUILDING BLOCKS:

- I. Strength
- II. Speed
- III. Stamina
- IV. Endurance
- V. Coordination

OVERTRAINING:

- I. The Overtraining Syndrome
- II. How to detect Overtraining?
- III. Overtraining and Chronic Fatigue
- IV. How to avoid Overtraining?
- V. How to cure overtraining?

800m:

- I. Overview

TRAINING PROGRAMS:

- The Effects of training
- Phases of Adaptation
- The Annual Program
- Examples

COMBINING DIFFERENT TRAINING MEANS:

- Preparation of Middle Distance Runners