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Training

A complete overview of training principles, building blocks, scheduling and phasing, completed with scientific articles and real-life tips & examples.

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Training Principles 
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Building Blocks

 I.  Strength

With very few exceptions almost all athletes need strength. It is a mistake to underestimate the importance of properly developing strength throughout the life of the athlete or believing that strength development is not an important factor in your overall performance. With relatively few exceptions, strength does play a significant if not crucial role in the determination of final results. Whether you are a young, developing, elite or recreational athlete, strength should be a significant part of your training. Strength has direct or indirect influence on most of the abilities needed for performance. For example, strength improvement has a direct influence on speed development. Improving the speed gives long distance runner chance to improve average speed during the race so strength indirectly influences outcome of endurance dominated performance.

Contrary to popular belief, you do not have to lift weights or become overly built to benefit from improvements in strength. Young athletes develop strength through natural, unbroken movements such as jumps, throws and other body weight exercises. Around puberty or shortly after, most athletes should participate in a more structured strength training program which may include some weight work. However, even an elite athlete will not do all their strength training in the weight room. Circuit training which includes little or no weight and can be done in several settings, plyometrics and exercises within the sport of specialization may account for a majority of the strength work time. Recreational and older athletes should take extra care with their strength training since they are more prone to injury. Proper strength training serves not only to improve overall performance, but also to secure the body and help the athlete avoid injury.

The external expression of strength is force. 
Force = mass x acceleration

Increases in force can come from raising both resistance and acceleration or by raising either one of them alone. In sports such as weightlifting where strength growth is accomplished through increased resistance (mass), speed of contraction stays constant. On the other hand, in throwing and jumping sports, mass stays constant and the main factor in raising force is through increasing the speed of contraction. There are some exceptions to this rule, but this gives you the idea. Because of the different ways in which maximum force is produced and the specificity of sports, strength has many practical expressions.

The most general methods used in evaluating an athlete's strength are absolute and relative strength. Absolute Maximum Strength refers to the maximum force exerted in one attempt and does not take into account body weight. This type of strength is very important for sports like training and sports like throwing, weight lifting in heavy weight category, etc. Relative Strength represents the ratio between an athletes absolute strength and body weight. In sports like gymnastics or sports with weight categories like weight lifting or fight sport this type of strength is much more important to performance. The second way to categorize is general and specific. This is used in practical training programming. General Strength refers to the strength of the whole body and is the foundation of the entire strength program development, regardless of the sport. It must be highly developed during the first few years of training for beginners and also must be a part of training for all levels of athletes during the preparatory period. Specific Strength is strength if the muscles particulars to a specific movement. It must be developed to the maximum possible level toward the end of the preparatory phase and maintained throughout the season for all elite class athletes.

Strength is commonly substituted or interchanged with the word power. Power, of course, is a product of two abilities, speed and strength. In sports, it relates to the ability to perform the maximum force in the shortest period of time. In some sports, such as shot put, javelin and jumping events, it is crucial to overcome resistance with the greatest possible speed. In these cases, power is the major factor in determining performance.

Many coaches look for athletes with a quality called strength reserve and associate this characteristic with the potential for high achievement. Strength Reserve is a ratio between the average needed strength for a sport and the absolute strength of an athlete. Those athletes with higher reserve strength are considered by many to be more capable of reaching higher performance when properly trained.

Strength Development

In the practical application of strength to the programming of training two categories are used: General and Specific.

General Strength refers to the strength of the whole body and is the foundation of development for the entire strength program, regardless of the sport. It must be highly developed during the first few years of training for beginners and also must be a part of training for all levels of athletes during the preparatory period. General strength incorporates a variety of methods including:

Specific Strength is strength of the muscles particular to a specific movement which includes all characteristics like speed, acceleration, resistance etc.. It must be developed to the maximum possible level toward the end of the preparatory phase and maintained throughout the season for all elite class athletes. It is not essential for young, developing or recreational athletes to spend a substantial amount of time developing specific strength since it is sport specific and requires that an athlete has become highly specialized in a particular sport. However, because of the ease of the exercises, many athletes, knowingly or not, use specific strength methods.

Development of specific strength includes doing sports imitated movements which are as close as possible to the particular aspect being developed. Some examples include:

• Running with a parachute; 

• Cycling in very hard gears; 

• Using ergometers and simulators with regulation of resistance;

The method of specific strength development depends on dynamic characteristics of the chosen sport. Taking under consideration motor requirements and the form of movements, we can generally divide sports into four groups:

• Strength-Speed Sports (e.g. jumps, throws, sprints, etc.) characterized by maximum intensity of work; 

• Endurance Sports (e.g. running, cycling, cross country skiing, etc); 

• High Coordination & Precision Sports (e.g. gymnastics, figure skating, diving, etc.);

• Complex Sports (judo, boxing, wrestling, soccer, basketball) characterized by regimented mixture of highly developed motor skills;

In the case of strength-speed sports, specific strength development will focus on explosive strength. Endurance sports specific strength should be developed simultaneously with muscular endurance. In high coordination-precision demanding sports specific strength development should be combined with development of high coordination skills. Activities here include all types of static and dynamic strength.

Periodization of Strength

Like other characteristics of sports abilities, strength development has a cyclic profile. There are three stages of strength development:

• Multilateral Development - general strength development of the entire body without specific development for a particular sport 

• Direct Development - strength development in a group of muscles which are sport specific 

• Specific Development - strength development with simultaneous modeling of other characteristics (e.g. speed endurance, technique) diving, etc.);

Periodization is done not only at different levels of long term development, but also repeated throughout every yearly cycle.

Within the annual cycle, goals for strength training vary depending on the time of the year. In the first part of the preparatory period you should reach the level of strength from the previous year. During the second part of the preparatory period you should strive to improve chosen parameters of strength. During the competition season you should maintain the level of strength from the preparatory period. And finally, during the transition you should be sure to prevent major losses of strength.

 II.  Speed

One of the major requirements in many sports is speed. Speed is usually a major factor determining the overall outcome in competitions. For endurance athletes speed can mean the ability to win in a sprint finish or break away from an opponent in a tactical situation. Training speed, like strength, is crucial for athletes of all ages and abilities. Children should be encouraged from a young age to continuously strive to be quicker. Developing and elite athletes must continuously strive to find new ways to develop speed, and older masters athletes must conscientiously train speed since it is more easily lost through the aging process.

The motor ability known as speed incorporates three elements:

• Reaction time; 

• Time of the simple movement over distance-power; 

• Frequency of the movement per time unit;

Heredity plays an important role in performing quick movements. However, most of the factors included in speed can be improved through training.

Reaction Time is the time between the moment when the individual is exposed to a stimulus and the first muscular reaction. Although reaction time is largely inherited, it can be improved through training. Most research suggests that reaction to both visual and verbal stimuli are shorter for trained than for untrained people. Reaction time in sports is crucial in both simple situations such as the gun shot in sprinting and complex situations when a choice is required. In many team sports this is the foundation for tactical advantages which may eventually determine the outcome of a game.

Time of the simple movement is dependent on Power. The ability to overcome resistance in the shortest possible time is the next determinant factor limiting fast movements(after reaction time). During training or competition the athlete meets external resistance through natural elements such as gravity, air, water, wind, snow as well as through the weight of equipment such as a javelin, shot or discuss or the weight of an opponent such as in football or wrestling. To improve speed in such a situation, one must increase the force of the muscular contraction. Often a movements must be not only quick, but also must be repeated over time. In this situation both power and speed training have to be accompanied by muscular endurance development to produce speed endurance.

An athlete's speed and frequency are determined by technique. Performing sports skills economically with ease, correct positioning of body levers and good neuro-muscular coordination will result in efficient use of energy and a higher speed of the movement. In addition to relaxation ability, joint flexibility is an important ingredient for performing movements with high amplitude(e.g. long stride in running) which in many sports is essential to execute optimum range of movement for maximum speed.

Speed is determined not only by mobility and well synchronized neuro-muscular response but also by the frequency of the precise nervous impulses and strong concentration. This is because quick, explosive movements depend on a high level of power. Willpower and strong concentration are very important factors in achieving high speed. Exercises of will must be included in the training process to achieve a high level of speed.

To build the right training program for speed, it is crucial to set and control elements of the load:

• Intensity should be maximum or over maximum. Exercise should be stopped if speed or frequency drops below maximum level. Close attention must be paid to full concentration and a high level of motivation.

• Time of work from a few seconds to 25 seconds. Extension of time above 30 seconds will lead to speed endurance, rather than pure speed, repetitions.

• Rest period after exercise should be sufficient to allow the athlete to perform maximum intensity. After 60 seconds of rest 75-80%CP (energy for short time effort) is restored, after 120 seconds 100%CP is restored. In some individual cases and in youth athletes rest may need to be as much as 2-5 minutes. For elite athletes 60 seconds is usually enough to prevent a drop of speed.

Speed work for sports where speed plays dominant or supportive role should be carried out all year around, even in the off season. It can be included in the warm-up or used in breaks between longer pieces to offset monotony of base workouts for endurance athletes. The level of speed and effectiveness of speed work should controlled by doing tests lasting not be longer than 20 seconds.

Even well set speed programs eventually will reach a ceiling called the speed barrier. In order to break this barrier new stimuli are required. New excitement has to break the monotony which will result in corresponding physical and psychological alterations. Some of the most effective methods to break the speed barrier are based on performing under relieved conditions or reduced resistance. Downhill running for example can give an athlete a new sense of speed which will lead to further improvements. The employment of relieved methods should include accelerations which can be reproduced under normal competitive conditions. In general, these methods should be restricted to advanced athletes whose skill levels are completely automated and can technically handle such rapid accelerations.

 III.  Stamina

Stamina is often referred to as Speed Endurance. It is the ability to maintain a high intensity over a certain period of time. Stamina is very important to 400m sprinters and middle distance runners, who need to maintain high speed for a certain time, thereby creating maximum lactate levels in their muscles. 

 IV.  Endurance

Endurance is a wide concept which represents the ability to maintain a certain intensity over a period of time. An individual's endurance is relative to such factors as intensity (speed, force, load, tension, etc.), technical efficiency, the muscles' adaptation to the movement, psychological state during execution of the work, etc. The different types of endurance are determined by intensity and duration of the effort. From a duration point of view we can divide them into:

• short duration (up to 2 minutes); 

• medium duration (approximately 2-8 minutes); 

• long duration (above 10 minutes);

• ultra duration (more than two hours);

Based on physiological criteria and intensity level endurance is influence by both aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Both of these can be related to general and muscle specific endurance.

Aerobic capacity

Aerobic capacity is the ability to produce work by utilizing fuel in presence of oxygen. Aerobic capacity is a function of maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂MAX). VO₂MAX represents the body's maximum total aerobic metabolic rate. It can be measured using a gas analyzer during a maximal stress test. The difference between the oxygen content of the inhaled and exhaled air is measured to find out how much oxygen (O₂) was consumed per minute. This value is expressed as liters per minute of oxygen and can vary from 2 to 7.5 liters/minute. However, it is more common to express the VO₂MAX of an individual in relation to their body weight in kilograms to see their aerobic efficiency. These values range from 20 to over 90 milliliters per kilogram of body weight per minute. The highest values of VO₂MAX per kilogram of body weight are found in cross country skiers, where these levels are directly related to performance. On the other hand, the highest absolute VO₂MAX values are found in rowers, where weight is relatively unimportant. The oxygen uptake per kilogram of body weight in sports such as cycling or running is a very important factor in performing.

In terms of training for improvement of aerobic capacity, one must remember that training above VO₂MAX is not very effective because rapid fatigue will reduce the volume of work an athlete can do. On the other hand, the minimum intensity required to force changes in adaptation is about 50% of VO₂MAX or 75% of maximum heart rate. Although the rate of improvement may be higher with continuous methods (running for 60 minutes), high intensity intervals (e.g. running 10 x 800 meters) allow greater volumes at desired intensity loads and better control over the training process. Improvement of aerobic capacity can be achieved at lower effective intensity levels with higher duration. One must remember that effective changes, especially on the muscle level, are produced at lower intensities. This is very important since reducing intensity is desirable for many young, recreational and recovering from injury athletes trying to reduce the risk of overtraining and injury. Increasing duration of work beyond 40 minutes per session at lower intensity (70-80% of VO₂MAX) can produce as much benefit as a shorter duration at higher intensity work.

The two main factors determining performance in endurance events are:

• maximal oxygen capacity(VO₂MAX); 

• muscle adaptation 

An athlete's VO₂MAX, and the percentage of VO₂MAX they can use for an extended period of time, will determine average speed of their race. The amount of time this speed can be sustained depends on muscle adaptation. Muscle adaptation encompasses structural changes which allow the muscles to become more efficient through adaptation to specific types of work related to specific sports.

Although changes in VO₂MAX and muscle adaptation occur simultaneously, the rate of change is significantly different. The separation between VO₂MAX and muscle adaptation can be illustrated by the following examples. A long distance runner, after taking two weeks off, loses on average 2-3% of VO₂MAX but overall performance (measured as the time to exhaustion at a given speed) can be reduced as much as 24%. Through extended training you can expect improvement in VO₂MAX. At the same time, enzymes responsible for aerobic metabolism would increase, resulting in higher mitochondrial enzyme levels. Changes in muscle adaptation are more rapid than those of VO₂MAX. That is why, in the eyes of most educated coaches, improving muscle adaptation is the main target in the training process.

The main factors determining an athlete's speed in an endurance race are:

• VO₂MAX; 

• economy of motion or technique 

The time this speed can be maintained is a function of glycogen storage in the muscles and efficiency in fuel utilization. VO₂MAX is used to improve the ability to keep high average race pace. However, the amount and quality of work that can be done to improve VO₂MAX is determined by the amount of work done to improve the Anaerobic Threshold (AT).

The anaerobic threshold refers to the maximum workload that can be met by aerobic metabolism. Increase of workload at this point leads to involvement of anaerobic metabolism which is reflected in accumulation of a product of this process: lactic acid. Up to that point the balance between lactic acid production and removal can be maintained. AT provides the most accurate starting point for monitoring training in endurance sports. Training near AT level seems to improve aerobic capacity most while reducing the risk and occurrence of overtraining. There is also proof that training above AT level too frequently will cause a loss of aerobic capacity.

Since VO₂MAX is in great degree determined by genetics, the focus of the endurance athlete should be directed toward better use of their given potential through raising their AT. Individuals may have similar VO₂MAX values but differing AT levels and therefore performance times may differ substantially at a given intensity of exercise. As was mentioned earlier, a high anaerobic threshold, relative to VO₂MAX, will benefit the endurance athlete. However, it should be noted that the possible benefits to performance of a high relative AT decreases as the intensity of exercise approaches or exceeds VO₂MAX.

Anaerobic capacity

The influence of anaerobic capacity on the final outcome of maximum performance is greater as the duration of performance gets shorter. Utilization of energy without oxygen is relatively short lasting. However, it is under these conditions that humans can achieve the highest possible performance. In sports which require maximal effort (sprints, jumps, throws, weight lifting, etc.), energy is produce with little or no presence of oxygen. During longer events, anaerobic metabolism can be utilized in the beginning of the event, at the finish and, in some sports, during the middle of the event, for the tactical purposes or responding to an opponents attack. For example, in cycling, without a well developed anaerobic capacity cyclists will not be able to escape or respond to sudden attacks by their opponents. It's worth mentioning that during the start of the race or in events like jumps, throws, and weight lifting of under 15 seconds duration, energy is derived from a chemical compound (creatine phosphate), without any by-products. However, if the event lasts longer than 20 seconds, later in the race, when aerobic capacity is not sufficient to cover the level of intensity or speed needed, the energy comes from anaerobic breakdown of fuel (glycogen). An athlete's ability to maintain or dramatically raise intensity or speed of performance comes with the price of a waste product (lactic acid) which, due to its acidic character, disturbs body biochemical balance and leads to fatigue, thus reducing the ability of the muscles to contract.

Training to improve anaerobic capacity should be focused on improvement of anaerobic metabolism rate which, of course, will produce more of the lactic acid. Well organized anaerobic training will, as well, improve the athlete's ability to reduce the negative effect of the lactic acid by developing buffering abilities which convert lactic acid to a weaker acid which does not offset the body's chemical balance, allowing longer duration of high intensity. Lastly, anaerobic training helps by elevating athlete's pain tolerance. The level of strength and speed development has a great influence on anaerobic capacity and their improvement should be treated as prerequisite to anaerobic endurance development.

The frame of annual periodization of endurance, as well as periodization of multi-year development, is consistent with other abilities. It always starts with general development, focused on aerobic endurance accompanied with other general functions like speed and strength. In the next stage, which focuses on building bases for specialized training, the focus is shifted to higher intensity work to develop VO₂MAX and anaerobic metabolism. The last phase, of course, is strictly focused on sport specific endurance training. However, a small amount of work is devoted to maintenance of level basic functions developed in pervious phases.

Endurance is related directly to the ability to tolerate high levels of fatigue and all the discomforts that come with it. For this reason, it is worth mentioning the importance of psychological preparation to deal with monotony, pain and motivation. Coaches must remember that, when it comes to endurance sports, one of the most overlooked abilities which, in fact, determines an athlete's future success, is the ability to carry great amounts of work over long periods of time as needed to develop all aspects of endurance.

 V.  Coordination

Generally, coordination refers to the human ability to perform simple and complex movements. Speed, precision, rhythm, fluency and economy of execution of the different motions are very important elements of the evaluation of coordination. Coordination takes on different forms and levels depending on these elements.

From the sport specific requirements we can observe three distinctive types of coordination based on the way each movement must be performed to be successful:

• Precisely executed simple and complex movements; 

• Precisely executed motions which are performed as fast as possible or in a timely fashion; 

• Precisely executed simple and complex skills which are performed as fast as possible or/and in a timely fashion in a continuously changing environment or in the presence of an opponent. 

In the first case, there is coordination where the tasks are very precise and the speed of execution is not important. The range of the movements are from quite simple, done by one group of muscles, to complex, full body motions. This type of coordination can be quite easily measured by its precision or deviation from the model. Golf and shooting are based on coordination of precise movements which include alignment of the body in relation to the target and can be measured by angles. In simple terms, this type of the coordination involves the ability to move the whole body or parts of it to a very precise position or angle, in some cases without the opportunity to use visual control. Sports like gymnastics and figure skating are examples where the evaluation of coordination is based on comparison to the model execution of the motion. This coordination is an ability to reproduce exercises or complex sequences of movements as close as possible to perfect model of that motion.

There are individuals who can reproduce even the most complex motion with high precision as long as there is no time restriction. However, when the skill has to be performed as fast as possible or with required speed to be effective, they can not do it. This type of coordination is very important for sports like throws (shot put, javelin, etc.), jumps (high and long jump, etc.), weight lifting, or diving. In this case, the ability to finish each segment of the motion will have direct impact on final result. A diver's inability to execute air acrobatics on time, in order to assume the proper entry position, will cause a big splash and major points deduction. In throws or jumps, precise skill performance in a timely manner will decide about length or height achieved. In young athletes, this type of coordination can be evaluated by the time of execution of combined movements in an obstacle course which might include running, jumping over barriers, and doing simple acrobatics such as summersaults. This coordination is also important in training soldiers, where routines have to be executed as fast as possible or in a timely fashion.

The last type of coordination is needed for all team sports, fighting sports like wrestling, judo or boxing, tennis etc. In this case, precise movements have to be, not only fast and timely, but also adjusted to changing situations during the contest. Soccer, hockey or basketball players player receiving a ball or puck during a game must quickly choose, depending on the situation and position on the field, what to do, how to do it and how this will effect the play. There are a lot of players who, during training or staged plays can precisely kick, pass, dribble, run with the ball and execute tactical elements. However, during game situations, with changing environments, they have trouble using their skills. This is usually due to their inability to adapt and modify them to ever changing situations. Most coaches assume that the athlete is "choking" in the game situation, when in fact, the problem is most likely due to lack of proper coordination. Measuring this type of coordination is quite difficult. Observation of actual performance is probably the best source of information. During training, reaction of an athlete to the introduction of surprise may be a good indicator of what can happen in an actual game.

A well developed sense of motion is important to good coordination. This sense, in cooperation with vision and sound, allows the athlete to get information about the position of different parts of the body, tension and action of different muscles, as well as the body's spatial position and dynamics of movement (e.g. speed). Athletes with a well developed sense of motion can make corrections during the execution of movements and are able to imagine and visualize each element of very complex activities.

Coordination is influenced by the genetic make up of individual, as well as the individual's imagination, acquired skills and experience. During human development, coordination improves along with the state of nervous system. Kids learn simple motions early on and later build complex responses which can be performed precisely, fast and in different situations. Coordination consists of many elements which I won't categorize here. However, it is important for coaches and parents to know basic elements so they can evaluate the development of coordination in kids and use them for teaching, observing or testing purposes.

Some of the basic elements are:

• Balance both static and in motion (standing , running), or with use of equipment (e.g. cycling, skiing, skating, etc.); 

• Speed of reaction from movement of parts of the body to reaction in motion like starting, turning, stopping, and accelerating; 

• Spatial orientation which is awareness of changing environment in relation to your own movements or position;

• Ability to differentiate movements by feeling, like applying the right amount of required pressure or tension, speed, etc.;

• Jumping ability;

• Precision, fluency and control of rhythm;

• Concentration and perception of time and distance;

Very often the evaluation of coordination may involve more complex abilities where additional exercises are built on simple coordination (e.g. rotating the body in the air).

Coordination, like all other abilities, can be general and specific, related to precise skills or movements. There is no doubt that a high level of general coordination makes it easier to learn specific coordination. However, there is no such a relation in opposite direction. So, if somebody acquires perfect swimming technique, without developing general coordination, they will still have a harder time learning skiing, games, gymnastics and other sports than an athlete with well developed general coordination (assuming that their genetic heritage is not far apart). Most sports techniques are complex movements which athletes learn based on previously established simple skills and coordination. An athlete with a high level of general coordination and many skills will learn new technique faster, by "assembling" smaller elements together. As well, in sports where technique has to be xeecuted in the presence of an opponent and in a changing environment, the athlete's technique will be more versatile and universal. Athletes with great general coordination, regardless of age, learn new techniques and correct mistakes faster and better than those who only focus on specific coordination. Really, the only way to improve coordination, is by learning new skills and performing those you already know in a continuously changing environment.

In learning coordination, the first step is for the athlete to master motions in a stable environment, without time restrictions, focusing on improvement of precision. After the skill becomes formed, they can move to learning to do it fast while maintaining correct form and adapting to different situations and environments. In the annual cycle, in early stages of accumulation (early stage of preparatory period), even highly advanced athletes should try to acquire new skills, before focusing on specialized movements.

Training:

contains: 

ABSTRACTS, NEWS & ARTICLES:

TRAINING PRINCIPLES:

- I. Individual Differences
- II. Overload
- III. Progression
- IV. Adaptation
- V. Use / Disuse
- VI. Specificity

BUILDING BLOCKS:

- I. Strength
- II. Speed
- III. Stamina
- IV. Endurance
- V. Coordination

OVERTRAINING:

- I. The Overtraining Syndrome
- II. How to detect Overtraining?
- III. Overtraining and Chronic Fatigue
- IV. How to avoid Overtraining?
- V. How to cure overtraining?

800m:

- I. Overview

TRAINING PROGRAMS:

- The Effects of training
- Phases of Adaptation
- The Annual Program
- Examples

COMBINING DIFFERENT TRAINING MEANS:

- Preparation of Middle Distance Runners